FOUR PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
THEIR PRACTICE IN EDUCATION AND RELIGION
1. Metaphysic . Theories of the nature of reality
A. cosmology. Theories of the nature of reality.
A. causality. The nature of cause and effect relations.
B. The nature of time
C. The nature of space
2. Two distinctive views in cosmology are
A. Evolutionism. The universe evolved of itself
B. Creationism. The universe came to be as the result of the working of a creative cause or personality
B. The nature of man as one important aspect of reality.
1. the problem of the essential nature of the self. There are no particular terms but there are divergent answers which can be identified with general viewpoints.
a. the self is a soul, a spiritual being. A principles of idealism and spiritual realism.
b. The self is essentially the same as the body. A principle of naturalism and physical realism.
c. The self is a social-vocal phenomenon. A principle held especially by experimentalists.
d. The self is a sheer fact where it is. it is “thrown” into some situation or place which is the locus of its being. A concept held by some existentialists.
2. the problem of the relation of body and mind
a. Interactionism. Mind and body are two different kind of reality, each of which can affect the other.
b. Parallelism. Mind and body are two different kinds of reality which do not and cannot affect each other. But in some unknown way, every mental event is paralleled by a corresponding physical event.
c. Epiphenomenalism. Mind is merely a function of the brain, an overtone accompanying bodily activity. It is an onlooker at events, accompanying bodily activity. It is an onlooker at events, never influencing them.
d. Double aspect theory. Mind and body are two aspects of a fundamental reality whose nature is unknown.
e. Emergence theory. Mind is something new which has been produced by nature in the evolutionary process, neither identical with body. Parallel to it, nor wholly dependent upon it.
f. Spiritualism. Mind is more fundamental than body. The relation of body and mind is better described as body depending upon mind, as compared to the common-sense description according to which mind depends upon body.
3. The problem of freedom.
a. determinism. Man is not free. All of his actions are determined, sometimes by forces greater then he is.
Free will. Man has de power of choices and is capable of genuine initiative.
b. There is a third alternative proposed especially by the experimentalists, for which there is no name.
C. conceptions of and about God.
1. Atheism. There is no ultimate reality in or behind the cosmos which is person or spirit.
2. Deism. God exists quite apart from, and is disinterested in, the physical universal and human beings.
3. pantheism. All is God and God is all.
4. the conception of God as emerging, for which there is no common name.
5. polytheism. Spiritual reality is plural rather than a unity. There is more than one God.
6. theism. Ultimate reality is a personal God who is more than the cosmos but within whom and through whom the cosmos exists.
D. Teleology. Consideration as to whether or not there is purpose in the universe.
1. Philosophies holding that the word is what it is because of change accident or blind mechanism are nonteleological
2. Philosophies holding that there has been purpose in the universe from it beginning , and can be discerned
3. it may be that a special case must be made of the experiment again on the this particular question as they do not find purpose
E. Consideration relating to the constancy , or lack of it , in reality
1. Absolutism
2. Relativism
F. Problems of quantity . Consideration of the number of ultimate realities apart from
quality
1. Monism . Reality is unified . It is one. It is mind , or matter, or energy
2. Dualism . Reality is two . Usually theses realities are antithetical , as spirit and matter , good and evil
3. Pluralism . Reality is two is many . Mind things material energies law process .
G. Ontology . The meaning existence as such . To exist , to have being means what .
1. Space time or nature as identical with existence
2. Spirit or God as identical with existence
3. Existence as category which upon Mind or spirit
II. Epistemology . Theories of the nature knowledge
A. The possibility of the knowledge
1. Agnosticism
2. Skepticism
3. The affirmation of knowledge of ultimate reality is an impossibility
4. The affirmation if function knowledge
B. The kind of knowledge
1. A posteriori
2. Experimental knowledge
3. A Priori
C. The Instrument of knowledge
1. Empiricism . The position that sensation .
2. Rationalism . The position that reason knowledge
3. Intuitionism . A Position that reason knowledge
4. Authoritarianism
5. Revelation . The position that God Presently
III. Logic . The science of exact thought
A. Induction
B. Deduction
C. Experimental
D. Dialectic
IV. Axiology . The general theory of value . The general theory of value . The nature of value the different kinds of value , specific value worthy . The nature of values, the different kind of value specific value worthy of passion
The approaches to philosophy
A.The nature of value.
1. the interest theory. Values depend upon the interest of the person who enjoys them.
2. the existence theory. Values have an existence in their own right which is independent of the value and his interest.
3. the experimentalist theory. That is of value which yields a greater sense of happiness in the present and at the same time opens the way to further goods in future experiences.
4. the part-whole theory. The key to realizing and enjoying value is the effective relating of parts to wholes.
B. Realms of value.
1.ethics. the nature of good and evil. The problems of conduct and ultimate objectives.
a. the worth of living.
1. optimism.
2. pessimism.
3. Meliorism
b. the highest good or summum bonum. the end ,aim, or objective of living which is above all other ends. In absolutist philosophies it is the ultimate end which by its nature cannot be a means to another end.
1. hedonism.
2. perfectionism.
c. The criteria of conduct. From ones conception of the highest good there follow logically certain practical principles for everyday living
1. Kant’s maxim
2. Spencer’s principle
3. Dewey’s principle
4. The religion principle
d. The Motivation of conduct . The kind and scope of the interest which guide conduct
2. Aesthetic . The nature of the values which are found in the feeling aspects of experience
3. Religious Values . The kind , nature and worth of values to be possessed in worship , religion experience , and worth of values to be possessed in worship
4. Educational value . The kind , nature and worth of values inherent in the educative process.
5. Social values . The kind , nature, and worth of values only realized in community and in the individuals relation of society . Some more specific kind of social values are the political and the economic .
6. Utilitarian Values . The kind , nature and worth of values to be realized in harmonious adjustment to or efficient control of the forces of the physical environment .
1. SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURALISM
A. The metaphysics of naturalism
1. Naïve naturalism
Naïve naturalism includes all attempts to designate some substance as the be – all and end – all of nature , and therefore of existence itself.
We have then two kinds of naïve naturalism:
a. Materalism
b. Energism
2. Critical naturalism t
There have been naturalists were not satisfied with the attempt to explain all things in terms of substance.
Theses to kind of critical naturalism can made clearer by some further elaboration.
a. positivism
b. nature as process
c. An elusive Philosophy
B. The Epistemology of naturalism
Just what does naturalism have to say about our knowledge of the word ? Naturalism is distinct philosophy by virtue of its insistence that reality and nature are identical and that beyond nature there is no reality .
1. Naïve Naturalism
2. Critical Naturalism
C. The logic of naturalism
D. The Axiology of naturalism
This principle was foremost , it will be recalled , in the thinking of Democritus , Epicurus and Lucretius .
1. Ethical value
2. Aesthetic Value
3. Religious Value
4. Social Value
NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
1. Education as a social institution .
2. The Pupil . One of the clichés which has been current in education for some time is to the effect that “ teacher do not teach subjects, they teach pupils .
3. The objectives education .
4. The Education Process
NATURALISM IN RELIGON
1. The status of Religion say that naturalism is inclined to reduce religion to phenomenon of human experience , the roots and character of which are both purely nature .
2. The nature of God . Many naturalist do not use the term Good.
3. The power and Goodness of God . Is God infinitive and all – powerful? Wieman’s answer is” no” God is within Nature . He is not all of nature , no more than nature
4. The nature of man. Two important aspects of query about man whether he has a soul and whether he is good or bad.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURALISM
A. The strengths of naturalism
1. The first source of confusion is ourselves, depending to some extent on the basic disposition of our own personalities .
2. The second source of confusion is society
B. The weaknesses of naturalism
1. In the firs place, reality can not be as simply and definitely describle
2. In the second place, nature is not all rhythm
3. The next two weaknesses of naturalism
4. But even within the realm of metaphysics
5. A fifth criticism is that there are some important ways in which man can never be at home nature.
2. HISTORY OF IDEALISM
Idealism and naturalism have been the two log-standing rival
HISTORY EDUCATION OF NATURALISM
A. SOME ANCIENT ROOTS OF NATURALISM
The earliest figure with whom our histories of philosophy commonly begin were naturalists. Thales, who lived in Miletus, a coastal city of ancient Asia Minor, during the early part of the sixth century B. C.
1. LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS
Leucippus and Democritus explained the world in a common-sense reduction of
nature to two simple things: empty space and atoms. They assumed that there is and can be such a thing as empty space, a vacuum or void containing nothing. This empty space they considered to be the same as nothing, nonexistence, or nonbeing. Simple habits, simple food, quiet pleasures, balance in work, not overdstretching one’s self by too much ambition-this is the quiet way of life in harmony with Nature.
2. EPICURUS
His solution was that objects give off a kind of film of atoms which is transmitted to the mind through the sense, and there yields a kind of photographic replica of the object. This replica is not a copy pure and simple, for it is constituted by atoms given off by the object itself.
3. LUCRETIUS
The exact dates of the life of Titus Lucretius are not known. He probably did ot live to be fifty years old, and such a span of life as he had was all contained within the first half of the century before Christ.
Lucretius must have been a literary genius to have taken the philosophy of Epicurus and dressed it up in such a beautiful poem as De Rerum Natura. Significant though he may be as a man of letters, he does not have the distinction of having added to or improved upon the Epicurean system.
B. THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1679)
A full and adequate history of naturalism could by no means make a grand leap from Lucretius in the first century before Christ to Thomas Hobbes in the seventeenth century. It would be obliged to pick way along many devious paths, searching out the strains of naturalism in a number of little-known men, and after many pages bring the patient reader to the distant point to which attention is now directed after a simple turn of the page or quick movement of the eyes.
C. JEAN JAQUES ROUSSEAU ( 1712-1778)
Some justification is required for the inclusion of Rousseau in this brief history of naturalism.
The firs of theses is his preference for the quietude of the simple life lived closes to nature, which he held in common with the ancient naturalism . The her ways in contradistinction to the way of society .
D. HERBERT SPENCER ( 1820-1903)
Herbert is writing represent him as kind of fact – collecting and fact organizing machine but his Autobiography discloses more warmth of spirit . He was born of strong nonconformist stock, having some ancestors who were ardent followers of Jhon Wesley and other who were adherents of evangelical movement within the established church .
His firs employment was as a construction engineer on the London . The great work on education , education : Intellectual , Moral and Physical .
E. SYNTHESIS
Four ideas which are most common to naturalism as it is represented in this brief history we may be able to supply some unity to the sketch of development of naturalism which has been attempted .
1. Nature is all the reality .
2. reality is comprised of bodies moving in space
3. Ultimate reality is force or energy
4. The most acceptable life is possessed by keeping close
A SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF IDEALISM
A. The Metaphysics of idealism : The common attitude which is common to most people : hence its appeal
1. The Reality of the self : No doubt stated the belief in the reality of the self clearly as any when he said “ I think therefore I am”
2. The nature of the self : What the self in essence must also be added to the knowledge that it is for its existence to have decisive significance .
3. A Surrounding World Which is Spiritual .: J.A. Leigton regard personality as the key to reality.
4. The One and the Many : This extremely difficult problem of idealism is essentially one of deciding between monism and pluralism .
5. The Problem of evil : Problem of idealism , closely related to the one and many problem, is the why and what of evil . Of course , this question having to do with ethical value.
6. Freedom : Freedom is common among idealists, as been evident in the foregoing discussion .
7. Summary
B. The epistemology of Idealism
1. Foundation of idealist epistemology in Berkelery and KanT
2. idealism and Critical realism compared
3. some Knowledge by Direct experience
4. The Fack of Selfhood Makes Necessary That the World Be Self
5. System As Touchstone of Truth
C. The Logic of Idealism : Must our thinking be consistent? Many idealist say” Yes”.
D. The Axiology of Idealism
1. Ethical Value :
2. Aesthetic Value
IDEALISM IN EDUCATION
A. Education as social institution : If idealism has a rationale for the existence of the school , it must be one that is fundamentally opposed to that of naturalism
B. The Pupil : the teacher must not stop at the classification of the external observation of his face or behavior.
C. The Objectives of education : Of Self realization as the ultimate aim of education , by which he means a process as spiritual becoming.
D. The educative Process : of idealist inspired education is that it is ideal centered.
IDEALISM IN RELIGION
A. The status of religion : William H. book, The meaning of God in Human experience is one religion.
B. Our Experience of God : We were dealing with that outside edge edge of experience where the idealism find himself confronted by the fact of God.
C. The argument for the existence of God. Of Course the idealist dies not give as high a place to argument as the neo scholastic
D. The Nature of God : What has just been said is the least common denominator in all idealist definition of nature of God that ultimate reality is Spirit .
E. The Power and Goodness of God
F. The nature of Man
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF IDEALISM
A. The Strengths of Idealism : 1. The reality of the self the focal point of philosophizing , 2. Idealism is also correct in insisting upon the centrality of the self in gaining and organizing knowledge . 3. in stressing the human and personal elements in life and education . 4. and to be mentioned here is that it is a comprehensive philosophy
B. The weaknesses of Idealism : is a visionary utopianism , and is weak metaphysically and ontologically
3. REALISM
A brief History of realism
1. Aristotle : Ardently advanced the cause of science by spelling out the detail of a number of sciences with surprising fullness for his day .
2. Saint Thomas Aquinas : is not so must an exponent of the philosophy of realism as he is one the great thinkers in history who share the realist spirit .
3. John Amos Comenius : Was more theologian and educator than philosophy , but he believe in realism that was refreshingly simple .
4. Rene Descartes : Which were incorporated in the outline of history of idealism were his insistence upon the self reality and his particular version of the ontological argument for the existence of God.
5. Baruch Spinoza : Have already been presented in chapter on the history of idealism, but the fact that there are many modern non idealist philosophy .
6. John Locke : Attention is focus here upon his general philosophy as contained in his Concerning Human Understanding .
7. Immanuel Kant :Theses are the dualism in his theory of knowledge , which is comparable to similar dualism in critical realism and the implication in his idea of the thing in itself that knowledge does not affect its object fundamentally
ASYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF REALISM
A. The epistemology of Realism :
1. Epistemological monism : They say that the object of the external world are presented in consciousness, not represented
2. epistemological Dualism : Object are not presented ; they are represented
B. The metaphysics of realism:
1. Pluralism: William James reaction away from a block universe” A pluralistic or at least a nonunified cosmos seems to them to give elbowroom and liberates the human spirit from the feeling of cosmic stuffiness that many accompany monism
2. Determinism: As a rule , realists are strong in their respect for the orderliness, accuracy , and object of science
3. Mind: William James dictum” no psychosis without neurosis . For according to them mental life is always rooted and grounded in bodily existence
4. The world: order in the space mechanistic point of view
5. God : William James Introduce a novel idea in is Polytheism or doctrine of a limited God which has been taken up by some who have followed the realist tradition . He feels that evil is within God as far as geography of its existence is concerned . The God that I believe to be most probable is infinite and eternal like the universe which is His body , all perfect in .
C. The Logic Realism; an outline of formal logic was sketched and it was indicated that there are some ways in which modern philosophy have felt that formal.
D. The Axiology of realism : 1. that value are simple indefinable elements which are experienced for what they are when we experience , 2) that value are dependent upon the attitudes of the sentient .
REALISM EDUCATION
A. Education as a social Institution :John Amos said : That man is not made a man only by his biological birth . If he is made a man human culture must give direction and from to his basic potentialities , that human is not inherited by the new generation but is learned and preserved only by education .
B. The Pupil : There are the doctrine of mind and of determinism . then the pupil is to be defined as an organism with a highly developed brain.
C. The Objectives of education; for our theory of value, and our decision as to what the values of life are specifically , will determine to great extent the objectives.
D. The educative Process: While the conception of curriculum which Broudy build includes more than either, it does combine subject matter and problem approaches .
REALISM IN RELIGION
A. The Status of religion ; the typical realist attitude toward religion is one of talking it as a fact studying it as is, and building up theories about it only as the real facts permit.
B. Our experience of God: The experience of God then is prior to ideas concerning His nature.
C. The nature of God :Enough of the realist approach has now been described so that the reader can understanding that realists are not particularly interested in arguments for the existence of God.
D. The Power and Goodness of God : William P. who has already distinguished himself as one of realist characters in this book “ The ways of things.
E. The nature of Man : The variety in realist metaphysics , which is broad enough to include most every shade of doctrine between materialism on the one hand supernaturalism .
4. PRAGMATISM
A. SOME ANCIENT ROOTS OF PRAGMATISM
1. Heraclitus : All things are exchanged for gold fire “ he said , and fire for all things just as wares are exchanges for gold and gold for wares
2. The sophists : They were known as sophist and were apparently quite a rage among Athenian youth. Sophist has been more after a stigma than a compliment
B. Francis bacon: Among the bad knowledge habit of man, bacon single out four pointing his finger at than as idols of the mind to be destroyed.
C. Auguste comte : His only marriage result in separation which cost him added financial burden . To which Positive Philosophy gives most space.
D. The Pragmatist Tradition America
1. Charles Sanders Peirce : Although pierce is commonly considered as being in the ancestral line of American pragmatism,
2. William James : This the principle of Pierce the principle of pragmatism
3. John Deweye : Its likely that democracy and education
E. Synthesis : There are at least five proposition that can be extracted from this survey of the development of pragmatism.
1. All things flow , nothing remains the some
2. Hypotheses tested by experiment
3. It is impossible to gain knowledge of ultimate
4. Science should become a social pursuit by being applied
5. In order to determine the meaning of an idea
A SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF PHILOSOPHY OF PRAGMATISM
A. The epistemology of Pragmatism
1. pragmatism compared to rationalism : is leery of al generalization whether a prior or a posterior .
2. Pragmatism compared to empiricism is empirical in that its frame of reference is always sense perceptual experience not predisposed principles of reason .
B. The Metaphysics of Pragmatism :In creative Intelligence of pragmatic nation or reality is precisely that no theory of reality in general…. Is possible or needed .
C. The Logic of Pragmatism
1. The Pattern of Logic: 1) The indeterminate Situation, 2) The determination of problem – Solution , 3) Institution of Problem, 4) reasoning , 5) The operational character of facts - meaning
2. Some characterizations of pragmatic Logic: 1). In this pattern of thought , 2) This pattern pf logic is closely related to the biological realm., 3) the pattern of logic is closely related to the culture , 4) Indeterminate situation may either individual or social .
D. The Axiology of Pragmatism
1. Ethical value; Operating Instrument . This value theory applied to the ethical side of life is regarded by pragmatism as resolving the common conflict in ethic between the subjective
2. Aesthetic value ; there also an aesthetic side to value experience
3. religion Value : Only a summary statement will be made within this particular context regarding the pragmatic treatment of religious value
4. Social Value : : need of individual for society for the good of the group.
PRAGMATISM IN EDUACTION
A. Education as a social institution ; is to carry learning activities forward which justify the existence of
B. The Pupil: To begin with the most general first it may be said that biological , psychological , and social logical constitute
C. The Objectives of education : And at same there is no all inclusive objective to be defined that can be completed adequate
D. The educative process
1. A Reform in education : pragmatism as an educational theory is far from being the same as progressive .
2. The educative use of experience : The cycles of learing have the same freedom, flow varienty , and newness of the cycles of experience.
3. The teacher : The teacher is not the only decision maker, true enough , but the new education involves a total change in context of education
4. method : Building and executing units of study patterned after and matching the cycles of experience .
PRAGMATISM RELIGION
A. The Status Of Religion : James is book , The Varieties of religion experience a classic both in psychology and philosophy of religion , is study of the different ways in which people
B. The Nature Of God : God in immediate experience of the presence of the unssen, he was not at all attracted by arguments for theistic belief.
C. The Nature Of Man : Evil for pragmatism is the failure to stand up to life in this situationa which our experiences present.
THEIR PRACTICE IN EDUCATION AND RELIGION
1. Metaphysic . Theories of the nature of reality
A. cosmology. Theories of the nature of reality.
A. causality. The nature of cause and effect relations.
B. The nature of time
C. The nature of space
2. Two distinctive views in cosmology are
A. Evolutionism. The universe evolved of itself
B. Creationism. The universe came to be as the result of the working of a creative cause or personality
B. The nature of man as one important aspect of reality.
1. the problem of the essential nature of the self. There are no particular terms but there are divergent answers which can be identified with general viewpoints.
a. the self is a soul, a spiritual being. A principles of idealism and spiritual realism.
b. The self is essentially the same as the body. A principle of naturalism and physical realism.
c. The self is a social-vocal phenomenon. A principle held especially by experimentalists.
d. The self is a sheer fact where it is. it is “thrown” into some situation or place which is the locus of its being. A concept held by some existentialists.
2. the problem of the relation of body and mind
a. Interactionism. Mind and body are two different kind of reality, each of which can affect the other.
b. Parallelism. Mind and body are two different kinds of reality which do not and cannot affect each other. But in some unknown way, every mental event is paralleled by a corresponding physical event.
c. Epiphenomenalism. Mind is merely a function of the brain, an overtone accompanying bodily activity. It is an onlooker at events, accompanying bodily activity. It is an onlooker at events, never influencing them.
d. Double aspect theory. Mind and body are two aspects of a fundamental reality whose nature is unknown.
e. Emergence theory. Mind is something new which has been produced by nature in the evolutionary process, neither identical with body. Parallel to it, nor wholly dependent upon it.
f. Spiritualism. Mind is more fundamental than body. The relation of body and mind is better described as body depending upon mind, as compared to the common-sense description according to which mind depends upon body.
3. The problem of freedom.
a. determinism. Man is not free. All of his actions are determined, sometimes by forces greater then he is.
Free will. Man has de power of choices and is capable of genuine initiative.
b. There is a third alternative proposed especially by the experimentalists, for which there is no name.
C. conceptions of and about God.
1. Atheism. There is no ultimate reality in or behind the cosmos which is person or spirit.
2. Deism. God exists quite apart from, and is disinterested in, the physical universal and human beings.
3. pantheism. All is God and God is all.
4. the conception of God as emerging, for which there is no common name.
5. polytheism. Spiritual reality is plural rather than a unity. There is more than one God.
6. theism. Ultimate reality is a personal God who is more than the cosmos but within whom and through whom the cosmos exists.
D. Teleology. Consideration as to whether or not there is purpose in the universe.
1. Philosophies holding that the word is what it is because of change accident or blind mechanism are nonteleological
2. Philosophies holding that there has been purpose in the universe from it beginning , and can be discerned
3. it may be that a special case must be made of the experiment again on the this particular question as they do not find purpose
E. Consideration relating to the constancy , or lack of it , in reality
1. Absolutism
2. Relativism
F. Problems of quantity . Consideration of the number of ultimate realities apart from
quality
1. Monism . Reality is unified . It is one. It is mind , or matter, or energy
2. Dualism . Reality is two . Usually theses realities are antithetical , as spirit and matter , good and evil
3. Pluralism . Reality is two is many . Mind things material energies law process .
G. Ontology . The meaning existence as such . To exist , to have being means what .
1. Space time or nature as identical with existence
2. Spirit or God as identical with existence
3. Existence as category which upon Mind or spirit
II. Epistemology . Theories of the nature knowledge
A. The possibility of the knowledge
1. Agnosticism
2. Skepticism
3. The affirmation of knowledge of ultimate reality is an impossibility
4. The affirmation if function knowledge
B. The kind of knowledge
1. A posteriori
2. Experimental knowledge
3. A Priori
C. The Instrument of knowledge
1. Empiricism . The position that sensation .
2. Rationalism . The position that reason knowledge
3. Intuitionism . A Position that reason knowledge
4. Authoritarianism
5. Revelation . The position that God Presently
III. Logic . The science of exact thought
A. Induction
B. Deduction
C. Experimental
D. Dialectic
IV. Axiology . The general theory of value . The general theory of value . The nature of value the different kinds of value , specific value worthy . The nature of values, the different kind of value specific value worthy of passion
The approaches to philosophy
A.The nature of value.
1. the interest theory. Values depend upon the interest of the person who enjoys them.
2. the existence theory. Values have an existence in their own right which is independent of the value and his interest.
3. the experimentalist theory. That is of value which yields a greater sense of happiness in the present and at the same time opens the way to further goods in future experiences.
4. the part-whole theory. The key to realizing and enjoying value is the effective relating of parts to wholes.
B. Realms of value.
1.ethics. the nature of good and evil. The problems of conduct and ultimate objectives.
a. the worth of living.
1. optimism.
2. pessimism.
3. Meliorism
b. the highest good or summum bonum. the end ,aim, or objective of living which is above all other ends. In absolutist philosophies it is the ultimate end which by its nature cannot be a means to another end.
1. hedonism.
2. perfectionism.
c. The criteria of conduct. From ones conception of the highest good there follow logically certain practical principles for everyday living
1. Kant’s maxim
2. Spencer’s principle
3. Dewey’s principle
4. The religion principle
d. The Motivation of conduct . The kind and scope of the interest which guide conduct
2. Aesthetic . The nature of the values which are found in the feeling aspects of experience
3. Religious Values . The kind , nature and worth of values to be possessed in worship , religion experience , and worth of values to be possessed in worship
4. Educational value . The kind , nature and worth of values inherent in the educative process.
5. Social values . The kind , nature, and worth of values only realized in community and in the individuals relation of society . Some more specific kind of social values are the political and the economic .
6. Utilitarian Values . The kind , nature and worth of values to be realized in harmonious adjustment to or efficient control of the forces of the physical environment .
1. SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURALISM
A. The metaphysics of naturalism
1. Naïve naturalism
Naïve naturalism includes all attempts to designate some substance as the be – all and end – all of nature , and therefore of existence itself.
We have then two kinds of naïve naturalism:
a. Materalism
b. Energism
2. Critical naturalism t
There have been naturalists were not satisfied with the attempt to explain all things in terms of substance.
Theses to kind of critical naturalism can made clearer by some further elaboration.
a. positivism
b. nature as process
c. An elusive Philosophy
B. The Epistemology of naturalism
Just what does naturalism have to say about our knowledge of the word ? Naturalism is distinct philosophy by virtue of its insistence that reality and nature are identical and that beyond nature there is no reality .
1. Naïve Naturalism
2. Critical Naturalism
C. The logic of naturalism
D. The Axiology of naturalism
This principle was foremost , it will be recalled , in the thinking of Democritus , Epicurus and Lucretius .
1. Ethical value
2. Aesthetic Value
3. Religious Value
4. Social Value
NATURALISM IN EDUCATION
1. Education as a social institution .
2. The Pupil . One of the clichés which has been current in education for some time is to the effect that “ teacher do not teach subjects, they teach pupils .
3. The objectives education .
4. The Education Process
NATURALISM IN RELIGON
1. The status of Religion say that naturalism is inclined to reduce religion to phenomenon of human experience , the roots and character of which are both purely nature .
2. The nature of God . Many naturalist do not use the term Good.
3. The power and Goodness of God . Is God infinitive and all – powerful? Wieman’s answer is” no” God is within Nature . He is not all of nature , no more than nature
4. The nature of man. Two important aspects of query about man whether he has a soul and whether he is good or bad.
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF NATURALISM
A. The strengths of naturalism
1. The first source of confusion is ourselves, depending to some extent on the basic disposition of our own personalities .
2. The second source of confusion is society
B. The weaknesses of naturalism
1. In the firs place, reality can not be as simply and definitely describle
2. In the second place, nature is not all rhythm
3. The next two weaknesses of naturalism
4. But even within the realm of metaphysics
5. A fifth criticism is that there are some important ways in which man can never be at home nature.
2. HISTORY OF IDEALISM
Idealism and naturalism have been the two log-standing rival
HISTORY EDUCATION OF NATURALISM
A. SOME ANCIENT ROOTS OF NATURALISM
The earliest figure with whom our histories of philosophy commonly begin were naturalists. Thales, who lived in Miletus, a coastal city of ancient Asia Minor, during the early part of the sixth century B. C.
1. LEUCIPPUS AND DEMOCRITUS
Leucippus and Democritus explained the world in a common-sense reduction of
nature to two simple things: empty space and atoms. They assumed that there is and can be such a thing as empty space, a vacuum or void containing nothing. This empty space they considered to be the same as nothing, nonexistence, or nonbeing. Simple habits, simple food, quiet pleasures, balance in work, not overdstretching one’s self by too much ambition-this is the quiet way of life in harmony with Nature.
2. EPICURUS
His solution was that objects give off a kind of film of atoms which is transmitted to the mind through the sense, and there yields a kind of photographic replica of the object. This replica is not a copy pure and simple, for it is constituted by atoms given off by the object itself.
3. LUCRETIUS
The exact dates of the life of Titus Lucretius are not known. He probably did ot live to be fifty years old, and such a span of life as he had was all contained within the first half of the century before Christ.
Lucretius must have been a literary genius to have taken the philosophy of Epicurus and dressed it up in such a beautiful poem as De Rerum Natura. Significant though he may be as a man of letters, he does not have the distinction of having added to or improved upon the Epicurean system.
B. THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1679)
A full and adequate history of naturalism could by no means make a grand leap from Lucretius in the first century before Christ to Thomas Hobbes in the seventeenth century. It would be obliged to pick way along many devious paths, searching out the strains of naturalism in a number of little-known men, and after many pages bring the patient reader to the distant point to which attention is now directed after a simple turn of the page or quick movement of the eyes.
C. JEAN JAQUES ROUSSEAU ( 1712-1778)
Some justification is required for the inclusion of Rousseau in this brief history of naturalism.
The firs of theses is his preference for the quietude of the simple life lived closes to nature, which he held in common with the ancient naturalism . The her ways in contradistinction to the way of society .
D. HERBERT SPENCER ( 1820-1903)
Herbert is writing represent him as kind of fact – collecting and fact organizing machine but his Autobiography discloses more warmth of spirit . He was born of strong nonconformist stock, having some ancestors who were ardent followers of Jhon Wesley and other who were adherents of evangelical movement within the established church .
His firs employment was as a construction engineer on the London . The great work on education , education : Intellectual , Moral and Physical .
E. SYNTHESIS
Four ideas which are most common to naturalism as it is represented in this brief history we may be able to supply some unity to the sketch of development of naturalism which has been attempted .
1. Nature is all the reality .
2. reality is comprised of bodies moving in space
3. Ultimate reality is force or energy
4. The most acceptable life is possessed by keeping close
A SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF IDEALISM
A. The Metaphysics of idealism : The common attitude which is common to most people : hence its appeal
1. The Reality of the self : No doubt stated the belief in the reality of the self clearly as any when he said “ I think therefore I am”
2. The nature of the self : What the self in essence must also be added to the knowledge that it is for its existence to have decisive significance .
3. A Surrounding World Which is Spiritual .: J.A. Leigton regard personality as the key to reality.
4. The One and the Many : This extremely difficult problem of idealism is essentially one of deciding between monism and pluralism .
5. The Problem of evil : Problem of idealism , closely related to the one and many problem, is the why and what of evil . Of course , this question having to do with ethical value.
6. Freedom : Freedom is common among idealists, as been evident in the foregoing discussion .
7. Summary
B. The epistemology of Idealism
1. Foundation of idealist epistemology in Berkelery and KanT
2. idealism and Critical realism compared
3. some Knowledge by Direct experience
4. The Fack of Selfhood Makes Necessary That the World Be Self
5. System As Touchstone of Truth
C. The Logic of Idealism : Must our thinking be consistent? Many idealist say” Yes”.
D. The Axiology of Idealism
1. Ethical Value :
2. Aesthetic Value
IDEALISM IN EDUCATION
A. Education as social institution : If idealism has a rationale for the existence of the school , it must be one that is fundamentally opposed to that of naturalism
B. The Pupil : the teacher must not stop at the classification of the external observation of his face or behavior.
C. The Objectives of education : Of Self realization as the ultimate aim of education , by which he means a process as spiritual becoming.
D. The educative Process : of idealist inspired education is that it is ideal centered.
IDEALISM IN RELIGION
A. The status of religion : William H. book, The meaning of God in Human experience is one religion.
B. Our Experience of God : We were dealing with that outside edge edge of experience where the idealism find himself confronted by the fact of God.
C. The argument for the existence of God. Of Course the idealist dies not give as high a place to argument as the neo scholastic
D. The Nature of God : What has just been said is the least common denominator in all idealist definition of nature of God that ultimate reality is Spirit .
E. The Power and Goodness of God
F. The nature of Man
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF IDEALISM
A. The Strengths of Idealism : 1. The reality of the self the focal point of philosophizing , 2. Idealism is also correct in insisting upon the centrality of the self in gaining and organizing knowledge . 3. in stressing the human and personal elements in life and education . 4. and to be mentioned here is that it is a comprehensive philosophy
B. The weaknesses of Idealism : is a visionary utopianism , and is weak metaphysically and ontologically
3. REALISM
A brief History of realism
1. Aristotle : Ardently advanced the cause of science by spelling out the detail of a number of sciences with surprising fullness for his day .
2. Saint Thomas Aquinas : is not so must an exponent of the philosophy of realism as he is one the great thinkers in history who share the realist spirit .
3. John Amos Comenius : Was more theologian and educator than philosophy , but he believe in realism that was refreshingly simple .
4. Rene Descartes : Which were incorporated in the outline of history of idealism were his insistence upon the self reality and his particular version of the ontological argument for the existence of God.
5. Baruch Spinoza : Have already been presented in chapter on the history of idealism, but the fact that there are many modern non idealist philosophy .
6. John Locke : Attention is focus here upon his general philosophy as contained in his Concerning Human Understanding .
7. Immanuel Kant :Theses are the dualism in his theory of knowledge , which is comparable to similar dualism in critical realism and the implication in his idea of the thing in itself that knowledge does not affect its object fundamentally
ASYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF REALISM
A. The epistemology of Realism :
1. Epistemological monism : They say that the object of the external world are presented in consciousness, not represented
2. epistemological Dualism : Object are not presented ; they are represented
B. The metaphysics of realism:
1. Pluralism: William James reaction away from a block universe” A pluralistic or at least a nonunified cosmos seems to them to give elbowroom and liberates the human spirit from the feeling of cosmic stuffiness that many accompany monism
2. Determinism: As a rule , realists are strong in their respect for the orderliness, accuracy , and object of science
3. Mind: William James dictum” no psychosis without neurosis . For according to them mental life is always rooted and grounded in bodily existence
4. The world: order in the space mechanistic point of view
5. God : William James Introduce a novel idea in is Polytheism or doctrine of a limited God which has been taken up by some who have followed the realist tradition . He feels that evil is within God as far as geography of its existence is concerned . The God that I believe to be most probable is infinite and eternal like the universe which is His body , all perfect in .
C. The Logic Realism; an outline of formal logic was sketched and it was indicated that there are some ways in which modern philosophy have felt that formal.
D. The Axiology of realism : 1. that value are simple indefinable elements which are experienced for what they are when we experience , 2) that value are dependent upon the attitudes of the sentient .
REALISM EDUCATION
A. Education as a social Institution :John Amos said : That man is not made a man only by his biological birth . If he is made a man human culture must give direction and from to his basic potentialities , that human is not inherited by the new generation but is learned and preserved only by education .
B. The Pupil : There are the doctrine of mind and of determinism . then the pupil is to be defined as an organism with a highly developed brain.
C. The Objectives of education; for our theory of value, and our decision as to what the values of life are specifically , will determine to great extent the objectives.
D. The educative Process: While the conception of curriculum which Broudy build includes more than either, it does combine subject matter and problem approaches .
REALISM IN RELIGION
A. The Status of religion ; the typical realist attitude toward religion is one of talking it as a fact studying it as is, and building up theories about it only as the real facts permit.
B. Our experience of God: The experience of God then is prior to ideas concerning His nature.
C. The nature of God :Enough of the realist approach has now been described so that the reader can understanding that realists are not particularly interested in arguments for the existence of God.
D. The Power and Goodness of God : William P. who has already distinguished himself as one of realist characters in this book “ The ways of things.
E. The nature of Man : The variety in realist metaphysics , which is broad enough to include most every shade of doctrine between materialism on the one hand supernaturalism .
4. PRAGMATISM
A. SOME ANCIENT ROOTS OF PRAGMATISM
1. Heraclitus : All things are exchanged for gold fire “ he said , and fire for all things just as wares are exchanges for gold and gold for wares
2. The sophists : They were known as sophist and were apparently quite a rage among Athenian youth. Sophist has been more after a stigma than a compliment
B. Francis bacon: Among the bad knowledge habit of man, bacon single out four pointing his finger at than as idols of the mind to be destroyed.
C. Auguste comte : His only marriage result in separation which cost him added financial burden . To which Positive Philosophy gives most space.
D. The Pragmatist Tradition America
1. Charles Sanders Peirce : Although pierce is commonly considered as being in the ancestral line of American pragmatism,
2. William James : This the principle of Pierce the principle of pragmatism
3. John Deweye : Its likely that democracy and education
E. Synthesis : There are at least five proposition that can be extracted from this survey of the development of pragmatism.
1. All things flow , nothing remains the some
2. Hypotheses tested by experiment
3. It is impossible to gain knowledge of ultimate
4. Science should become a social pursuit by being applied
5. In order to determine the meaning of an idea
A SYSTEMATIC SYNOPSIS OF PHILOSOPHY OF PRAGMATISM
A. The epistemology of Pragmatism
1. pragmatism compared to rationalism : is leery of al generalization whether a prior or a posterior .
2. Pragmatism compared to empiricism is empirical in that its frame of reference is always sense perceptual experience not predisposed principles of reason .
B. The Metaphysics of Pragmatism :In creative Intelligence of pragmatic nation or reality is precisely that no theory of reality in general…. Is possible or needed .
C. The Logic of Pragmatism
1. The Pattern of Logic: 1) The indeterminate Situation, 2) The determination of problem – Solution , 3) Institution of Problem, 4) reasoning , 5) The operational character of facts - meaning
2. Some characterizations of pragmatic Logic: 1). In this pattern of thought , 2) This pattern pf logic is closely related to the biological realm., 3) the pattern of logic is closely related to the culture , 4) Indeterminate situation may either individual or social .
D. The Axiology of Pragmatism
1. Ethical value; Operating Instrument . This value theory applied to the ethical side of life is regarded by pragmatism as resolving the common conflict in ethic between the subjective
2. Aesthetic value ; there also an aesthetic side to value experience
3. religion Value : Only a summary statement will be made within this particular context regarding the pragmatic treatment of religious value
4. Social Value : : need of individual for society for the good of the group.
PRAGMATISM IN EDUACTION
A. Education as a social institution ; is to carry learning activities forward which justify the existence of
B. The Pupil: To begin with the most general first it may be said that biological , psychological , and social logical constitute
C. The Objectives of education : And at same there is no all inclusive objective to be defined that can be completed adequate
D. The educative process
1. A Reform in education : pragmatism as an educational theory is far from being the same as progressive .
2. The educative use of experience : The cycles of learing have the same freedom, flow varienty , and newness of the cycles of experience.
3. The teacher : The teacher is not the only decision maker, true enough , but the new education involves a total change in context of education
4. method : Building and executing units of study patterned after and matching the cycles of experience .
PRAGMATISM RELIGION
A. The Status Of Religion : James is book , The Varieties of religion experience a classic both in psychology and philosophy of religion , is study of the different ways in which people
B. The Nature Of God : God in immediate experience of the presence of the unssen, he was not at all attracted by arguments for theistic belief.
C. The Nature Of Man : Evil for pragmatism is the failure to stand up to life in this situationa which our experiences present.
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